Biography and History of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni

 

The ruler of the Ghaznavi Empire, Mahmud Ghaznavi (November 2, 971–April 30, 1030) was the first ruler in the world to attain the title of "Sultan".  Despite the Muslim caliph being the political leader of what is now Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India, he remained the religious leader of the empire.

Early Stage

Yamin ad-Dawlah Abdul-Qasim Mahmud ibn Sabuktegin, also known as Mahmud of Ghazni, was born in the southeast Afghan town of Ghazna (now called Ghazni) on November 2, 971. Abu Mansur Sabuktegin was a Turkic Mamluk slave warrior from Ghazni.

Sabuktegin took leadership of Ghazni when the Samanid kingdom in Bukhara (now Uzbekistan) collapsed in 977. He later took control of other significant Afghan cities, including Kandahar. He is believed to have established the dynasty, and his kingdom regarded as the foundation of the Ghaznavid Empire.

Mahmud of Ghazni's early years are hardly documented. The second of his two younger brothers, Ismail, was a child of Sabuktegin's main spouse. She was a free-born noblewoman, unlike Mahmud's mother, who was important when Sabuktegin died in 997.

Ascension to Power

Sabuktegin chose Ismail, his second son, above his 27-year-old military and diplomatic genius Mahmud, on his deathbed. He probably choose Ismail over the older and younger siblings since Ismail was not related to slaves on both sides.

After learning of his brother's accession to the throne, Mahmud, who was positioned at Nishapur (now in Iran), instantly marched east to contest Ismail's legitimacy. In 998, Mahmud defeated his brother's allies, conquered Ghazni, claimed the kingdom for himself, and imprisoned his younger brother for the remainder of his life in the palace. The new sultan's reign would last until 1030, the year he passed away.

Empire Expansion and Death

The Ghaznavid kingdom was greatly enlarged by Mahmud's early conquests, approximately matching the historical Kushan Empire in extent. He used customary Central Asian military strategies and tactics, principally depending on a highly mobile cavalry mounted on horses and armed with composite bows. 

During his time working for his father, Mahmud shown tremendous administrative competence and statesmanship, both of which he had showed previously. When he ascended to power, Ghazna was a small kingdom. As a result, in 1001 CE, he launched an offensive to expand his dominion.

In 1001, Mahmud shifted his focus to the lush fields of the Punjab, located in what is now India, to the southeast of his dominion. The territory was ruled by the powerful but infighting Hindu Rajput princes, who had no interest in working together to confront the Muslim invaders from Afghanistan. In contrast, the Rajputs fielded an army that included both horse cavalry and elephants, a strong but slower-moving force compared to that of the Ghaznavids. In 1026, the 55-year-old ruler invaded India's west (Arabian Sea) shore. His army reached Somnath, known for its Shiva temple. Mahmud's forces looted and destroyed Somnath temple, but Afghanistan was in trouble. 

According to Farrukhi Sistani a major poet of the eastern Islamic world and attached to the court at Ghazni says that "Mahmud destroyed the temple by setting it on fire, whereas others who report on this say that he destroyed only the idol although he may have desecrated the temple.” Romila Thapar, an Indian Author mentioned in his book, Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History, 2004.

The Seljuk Turks, who had previously seized Merv (now known as Turkmenistan) and Nishapur, were among the many other Turkic tribes who had stood up to challenge the sovereignty of the Ghaznavids (Iran). By the time Mahmud passed away on April 30, 1030 at the age of 59, these competitors had already started to take a stab at the borders of the Ghaznavid Empire.

Mahmud was a great administrator and fighter. He built Ghazna (current-day Ghazni, Afghanistan), his city, into a centre of culture that competed with Baghdad at the time. Many prominent scholars, including al-Beruni and Ferdowsi, settled in Ghazna attracted by his generosity and patronage.

The Islamic world and the Indian subcontinent increased their commercial and intellectual contact after Mahmud's conquest of northern India. It contributed to the spread of Indian culture outside. In Ghazni, he was buried after his death in 1030. (Now Ghazna, Afghanistan).

His Legacy

A complex legacy was left behind by Mahmud of Ghazni. His dominion would last until 1187, but even before his passing, it started to fall apart from west to east. Bahram Shah, a Ghaznavid ruler, fled to Lahore in 1151 after losing Ghazni proper (now in Pakistan).

Much of Sultan Mahmud's life was devoted fighting against the rulers of different religions including; Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and even Muslim sects like the Ismailis. Mahmud (and his master, the Abbasid caliph) deemed Ismailis heretics.

However, Mahmud of Ghazni appeared to have allowed non-Muslims as they did not engage in military conflict with him. This tolerance continued in the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and Mughal Empire (1526–1857).

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